National Board of Health and Welfare. Sexual Abuse of children 1999:5

Summary

Over the last 25 years, there has been a growing interest into how a child's memory functions. This is largely due to a greater awareness of the amount of chil'dren who are being sexually abused. A judicial interest in how children who have been sexual abused remember and tell about these experiences, has stimulated an intensification of research in regard to the nature of the human memory system, children s memory, traumatic memory false memory etc. Our memory functions can, in a simplified manner, be divided up into three different types of long term memory systems; the procedural, the semantic and the episodic memory. One can think of these as corresponding to different phases in a persons development. Simplified, it can be expressed as; we store what we can do, what we know and what we experience. The memory can also be seen from a consciousness dimension perspective, instead of in terms of memory systems for different types of information. Psychological research into the memory during the last ten years has been able to ascertain the enormous capacity that we have, to more or less automatically, or unconsciously, remember information about an incident- without specifically focusing on the episodic memory. One distinguishes between explicit and implicit recollection. Remembering explicitly means that we consciously try to recollect an occurrence. Implicit recollection means that we can recollect without knowing or thinking about it, thus, a type of unconscious recollection. The child s limited ability to express itself orally has a pronounced effect on its capacity to recollect. A combination of being unfamiliar with formulating thoughts orally and a limited vocabulary, causes younger children to express themselves less precisely and can therefore lead to them being more easily misunderstood. Children usually exhibit flawed abilities regarding , e.g. their concept of time, or judging the age of an adult. Inappropriate questions containing complex syntax or abstract concepts can create misunderstandings when the child exerts itself to try and answer questions that it does not really understand. Using the right questioning technique, it becomes possible in certain cases, for small children to recover memories in spite of an as yet not fully developed ability to speak, self image and concept of time. In studies dealing with physical or psychological trauma and selective memory, it has been consistently found that children remember emotionally charged elements that are central to an incident and it is more usual for them to forget elements on the periphery. A child may forget an emotionally charged experience, but it is less prevalent than when children try to remember neutral, everyday events. Certain studies indicate that it is possible to forget traumatic experiences, especially when they have occurred early in childhood. In a study that looked more closely at the group that had ''forgotten'' the sexual abuse, the following vital factors were found: 1. that the abuse occurred at an early age, 1-3 years, 2. that the abuse was committed by a near relative or acquaintance, 3. that the child was exposed to repeated abuses, 4. that near relatives avoid speaking with the child about the abuse. Psychological research into the memory has shown that the human s ability to remember is far from perfect. It has also shown that we remember experiences that are laden with heavy emotions in a special way. The clearly complex connection between strong feelings and memory can be seen from a survival perspective. It is not only necessary to remember emotionally charged information to be able to react to threat and potentially dangerous situations, but it is also necessary to be able to avert memories that awaken strong feelings. There are a number of circumstances that contribute to children, in certain respects, giving unreliable accounts of their recollections. Aside from limitations in cognitive ability ( e.g. inferior ability to process, organise or select information) and their psycho-sociological exposure, the child can be influenced by leading questions, fantasies or lies about the event, or alternatively, withhold and distort information. Children usually tell the truth at first, however, can easily be led astray by leading questions, or if a longer period of time has transpired between the event and the interview. This especially applies to children younger than five years of age. In a number of psychological studies, research into memory has shown that younger children can be enticed into saying that they have seen things that have not occurred. The effects of leading questions upon children varies depending on age, however, the variation is seen more in the context of the child leaving out information, or not answering at all; as opposed to answering incorrectly, or inventing information. It has also been found that younger children are less easily influenced than older children if the questions touch upon events or detailed information that are emotionally charged. Generally, research shows that younger children s spontaneous accounts of sexual abuse are seldom invented and that children are not very often led astray by leading questions concerning activities and events of a sexual character that have not occurred. The main problem rather, is getting children to talk about them. One cannot consider a child s statements to be unreliable because they consciously choose to not tell the truth. Older children can in certain cases invent stories of sexual abuse to tell about other types of abuse. An obvious reason for children not telling the truth can be that they feel afraid or threatened and are trying to avoid punishment. Most adults are aware that children are often subject to animated fantasies and can make up stories. What we think there is less awareness of, though, is the adults general inability to interpret these fantasies. For the most part, however, children lack the knowledge and experience that is needed to maintain a credible story based on fantasy. One of the most decisive factors for children and adults alike, to be able to remember and speak about incidents in a reliable fashion, is for them to feel secure in the interview situation. Studies show that children answer more accurately if they receive support and feel secure and comfortable. There are a number of reasons why one ought to strive to meet the child more than once if strong emotionally charged experiences are going to be spoken about. Once we have attempted to activate the child s memory during a conversation, the process of remembering continues more or less consciously after the conversation has ended. Memories can, consequently, pop up in a child long after a particular question has been asked. Getting at memories is also a laborious process and it most often requires several attempts to be able to reach them. Once we begin to talk about our experiences, we often begin to remember more and more. Talking often gives rise to a process that in turn leads to one being able to come in contact with those things that are most difficult and uncomfortable to deal with. Even though repeated questioning may be important to be able to come in contact with emotionally charged memories, we should also be aware of the fact that it can lead to the child fabricating details; that the memory becomes distorted, or that false memories are formulated. The risk of the child being led astray by leading questions increases during the course of repeated examinations over an extended period of time. This especially applies to children of pre-school age and when there are several interviews involved. Repeated explanations of traumatic events can even alter a child s sense of what happened caused by a focus upon the central details at the expense of the peripheral details. When conversing with a child, one should take into consideration the following: - that external conditions are good (e.g. a quiet room) - create a rapport and trust in the ''getting acquainted'' stage - make the child feel that you are involved in the conversation - use language suitable to the child s age - begin by speaking about neutral topics - communicate a genuine interest for the child as a person - be plain and do not let the child speak about other things too long - allow the child to be in control - let the child take the time it needs to speak and answer questions - allow pauses in the child s story - allow digression and even irrelevant details - avoid pronouncing judgement and being horrified - characterise the events to help the child to organise its memories - use open questions - encourage the child to repeat what it says from different points in the story - ask about essential details, especially those that arouse feelings and bring out details linked to the event -recreate the inner mental conditions (e.g. thoughts, feelings) and the external environment ( e.g. how the room looked) - visiting the place where the event took place can be a useful way of helping to recounting the event - encourage the child to think back to the event from several different perspectives - inform the child about the seriousness of the interview - end on a note that the child experiences as positive There is no one formula that has all the answers for how children should be interviewed, nor are there any sure techniques for getting children to disclose if they have been sexually abused. Further, it is also not possible to make a judgement in a particular case based only upon what a child says or remembers. We must also take into consideration other circumstances such as the child s level of development, emotional condition, injuries, symptoms, the social circumstances and the context in which the child is questioned.